Magic

Magic is an ancient practice rooted in rituals, spiritual divinations, and/or cultural lineage—with an intention to invoke, manipulate, or otherwise manifest supernatural forces, beings, or entities in the natural world.

It is a categorical yet often ambiguous term which has been used to refer to a wide variety of beliefs and practices, frequently considered separate from both religion and science.

Connotations have varied from positive to negative at times throughout history, Within Western culture, Magic has been linked to ideas of the Other, foreignness, and primitivism; indicating that it is "a powerful marker of cultural difference" and likewise, a non-modern phenomenon.

During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Western intellectuals perceived the practice of Magic to be a sign of a primitive mentality and also commonly attributed it to marginalised groups of people.

One approach, associated with the anthropologists Edward Tylor (1832–1917) and James G. Frazer (1854–1941), uses the term to describe beliefs in hidden sympathies between objects that allow one to influence the other.

Defined in this way, Magic is portrayed as the opposite to science.

An alternative approach, associated with the sociologist Marcel Mauss (1872–1950) and his uncle Émile Durkheim (1858–1917), employs the term to describe private rites and ceremonies and contrasts it with religion, which it defines as a communal and organised activity.

Aleister Crowley (1875–1947), a British occultist, defined "magick" as "the Science and Art of causing Change to occur in conformity with Will", adding a 'k' to distinguish ceremonial or ritual Magic from stage Magic.

In modern occultism and neopagan religions, many self-described magicians and witches regularly practice ritual Magic.

This view has been incorporated into chaos Magic and the new religious movements of Thelema and Wicca.

The English words Magic, mage and magician come from the Latin term magus, through the Greek μάγος, which is from the Old Persian maguš.

(𐎶𐎦𐎢𐏁|𐎶𐎦𐎢𐏁, magician).

The Old Persian magu- is derived from the Proto-Indo-European megʰ-*magh (be able).

The Persian term may have led to the Old Sinitic *Mγag (mage or shaman).

The Old Persian form seems to have permeated ancient Semitic languages as the Talmudic Hebrew magosh, the Aramaic amgusha (magician), and the Chaldean maghdim (wisdom and philosophy); from the first century BCE onwards, Syrian magusai gained notoriety as magicians and soothsayers.

During the late-sixth and early-fifth centuries BCE, the term goetia found its way into ancient Greek, where it was used with negative connotations to apply to rites that were regarded as fraudulent, unconventional, and dangerous.

in particular they dedicate themselves to the evocation and invocation of daimons (lesser divinities or spirits) to control and acquire powers.

This concept remained pervasive throughout the Hellenistic period, when Hellenistic authors categorised a diverse range of practices—such as enchantment, witchcraft, incantations, divination, necromancy, and astrology—under the label "Magic".

The Latin language adopted this meaning of the term in the first century BCE.

Via Latin, the concept became incorporated into Christian theology during the first century CE.

Early Christians associated Magic with demons, and thus regarded it as against Christian religion.

In early modern Europe, Protestants often claimed that Roman Catholicism was Magic rather than religion, and as Christian Europeans began colonizing other parts of the world in the sixteenth century, they labelled the non-Christian beliefs they encountered as magical.

In that same period, Italian humanists reinterpreted the term in a positive sense to express the idea of natural Magic.

Both negative and positive understandings of the term recurred in Western culture over the following centuries.

Since the nineteenth century, academics in various disciplines have employed the term Magic but have defined it in different ways and used it in reference to different things.

By the 1990s many scholars were rejecting the term's utility for scholarship.

They argued that the label drew arbitrary lines between similar beliefs and practices that were alternatively considered religious, and that it constituted ethnocentric to apply the connotations of Magic—rooted in Western and Christian history—to other cultures.

Historian Owen Davies says the term "white witch" was rarely used before the 20th century.

White Magic is understood as the use of Magic for selfless or helpful purposes, while black Magic was used for selfish, harmful or evil purposes.

Black Magic is the malicious counterpart of the benevolent white Magic.

There is no consensus as to what constitutes white, gray or black Magic, as Phil Hine says, "like many other aspects of occultism, what is termed to be 'black Magic' depends very much on who is doing the defining."

Gray Magic, also called "neutral Magic", is Magic that is not performed for specifically benevolent reasons, but is also not focused towards completely hostile practices.

Historians and anthropologists have distinguished between practitioners who engage in high Magic, and those who engage in low Magic.

High Magic, also known as theurgy and ceremonial or ritual Magic, is more complex, involving lengthy and detailed rituals as well as sophisticated, sometimes expensive, paraphernalia.

Low Magic and natural Magic are associated with peasants and folklore with simpler rituals such as brief, spoken spells.

Low Magic is also closely associated with sorcery and witchcraft.

Anthropologist Susan Greenwood writes that "Since the Renaissance, high Magic has been concerned with drawing down forces and energies from heaven" and achieving unity with divinity.

High Magic is usually performed indoors while witchcraft is often performed outdoors.

Magic was invoked in many kinds of rituals and medical formulae, and to counteract evil omens.

Defensive or legitimate Magic in Mesopotamia (asiputu or masmassutu in the Akkadian language) were incantations and ritual practices intended to alter specific realities.